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How Metabolic Experts View Your First Meal and Health

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dr. Karunia Valeriani Japar

Table of Contents
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Introduction: Breakfast, Metabolic Health, and Longevity

Breakfast has been promoted as” the most important meal of the day”, yet contemporary data from continuous glucose monitoring, time-restricted eating, and shift work cohort have challenged this dogma and reopened the debate around whether we should eat soon after walking or delay our first meal. Observational studies associate regular breakfast consumption with lower rates of obesity, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular events, but these findings are cofounded by overall diet quality and health behaviors, while interventional trial show that meal composition and timing may be more important than the mere presence or absence of breakfast. Within this evolving landscape, the first meal of the day can be reframed not as a cultural ritual but as a modifiable lever for circadian alignment and glycemic stability, both central to healthy longevity.

From a circadian biology perspective, peripheral clocks in the liver, gut and adipose tissue are entrained not only by light but also by feeding cues, with early-day energy intake generally supporting better insulin sensitivity and more favorable postprandial glucose handling compared with identical calories consumed late at night. Misalignment between the central clock and feeding window, as seen in habitual late eaters and shift workers, is linked to higher fasting glucose, worsened lipid profiles and increased cardiometabolic risk over time. In this context, an appropriately timed first meal, whether at 7 a.m or 11 a.m, depending on the individual acts as a “ metabolic zeitgeber” that can either synchronize or further disrupt daily glucose-insulin dynamic.

Equally important is what is eaten at that first meal. A conventional high-sugar refined starch breakfast induces rapid glucose excursions and subsequent reactive hypoglycemia, promoting hunger, snacking and higher energy intake across the day-patterns associated with weight gain and impaired metabolic health in contrast, higher protein, higher-fiber, low-glycemic, savory breakfast blunt glucose spikes, improve satiety hormones and reduce cravings, which. May translate into better long-term adherence to nutrient dense dietary patterns supportive of cardiometabolic and cognitive longevity. For clinicians and health-tech practitioners focused on prevention, reframing breakfast as a strategic opportunity to stabilize early-day glycaemia and reinforce circadian rhythms offers a pragmatic, behaviorally tractable intervention in the broader pursuit of metabolic resilience and healthy lifespan.

Do We Need Breakfast At All?

A substantial body of observational evidence suggests that habitual breakfast skipping is associated with adverse cardiometabolic outcomes, including higher rates of obesity, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease (CVD) and all-cause mortality, meta-analyses of prospective cohort report that individuals who regularly skip breakfast have approximately 20-30% higher risks of incident CVD events and death compared with regular breakfast consumers, even after multivariable adjustment, more recent mendelian randomization and mediation analyses also indicate a potential causal link between breakfast skipping and heart failure, partly mediated through unfavorable changes in fasting glucose, lipids and inflammatory metabolites. In parallel, lalrge cohort studies examining metabolic syndrome consistently find that higher frequency of breakfast skipping correlates with greater odds of abdominal obesity, hypertension, impaired fasting glucose and dyslipidemia [1,2,3,4,5,6].

Individual variability further complicates the question of whether “we need” breakfast in a prescriptive sense. Circadian‑nutrition studies indicate that later timing of the first meal, operationally similar to skipping conventional breakfast is independently associated with higher CVD risk, but these analyses also underscore the importance of the entire feeding window and alignment with endogenous circadian rhythms. People with later chronotypes, night‑shift work, or prolonged eating windows may experience more pronounced metabolic penalties from delaying their first meal, whereas metabolically healthy individuals practising early‑time‑restricted eating with an early, nutrient‑dense first meal may benefit, despite a reduced number of eating occasions. Energy balance and macronutrient quality are also critical modifiers: when total daily intake, diet quality and evening eating are optimised, morning fasting appears less detrimental, and in some contexts (e.g. structured time‑restricted eating or low‑carbohydrate diets) may be metabolically neutral or even advantageous [1,2,4,5,6,7].

Taken together, current evidence supports viewing breakfast not as universally mandatory, but as a powerful behavioural marker and modifiable lever within a broader pattern of circadian‑aligned, calorie‑appropriate, nutrient‑dense eating. Habitual omission of the first meal, especially in the context of late‑night eating, sedentary lifestyle and ultra‑processed dietary patterns, consistently tracks with higher risk of obesity, metabolic syndrome, CVD and premature mortality. At the same time, the heterogeneity in trial data and the potential for confounding mean that clinical recommendations should emphasise personalisation: prioritising earlier eating windows, minimising late‑night intake, and ensuring that the first meal whenever it occurs is composed to support glycaemic stability and overall diet quality, rather than focusing narrowly on the categorical presence or absence of “breakfast” [1,4,8,9,10].

Meal Timing, Circadian Rhythm, and Biological Aging

Across multiple lines of evidence, earlier meal timing, including an earlier first meal appears to support healthier circadian organization, improved cardiometabolic profiles and potentially lower long-term mortality risk large prospective cohorts from Europe and the U.S. indicate that delaying the first meal of the day is associated with a graded increase in cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk, with one analysis reporting about a 6% higher CVD risk for each hour that the first meal is delayed beyond early morning, and a markedly higher risk when the last meal is consumed after 21:00 compared with before 20:00. In the NutriNet‑Santé cohort, participants who ate both breakfast and dinner earlier, thereby extending their overnight fasting interval, exhibited lower incidence of CVD events, particularly cerebrovascular disease, than those with late first and last meals, even after adjustment for diet quality and lifestyle factors. These findings are consistent with broader chrononutrition data linking late‑night eating, breakfast skipping and compressed, irregular eating windows to adverse cardiometabolic markers and increased CVD risk over time [8,9,10,11].

Mechanistically, these associations likely reflect the interplay between central and peripheral clocks that coordinate daily rhythms in glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, blood pressure and endothelial function. Experimental work shows that feeding is a strong “zeitgeber” for peripheral clocks in liver, muscle and adipose tissue, and that shifting energy intake towards the biological “active phase” enhances alignment between central (light‑entrained) and peripheral (food‑entrained) oscillators. Early time‑restricted eating (eTRE) protocols typically confining food intake to 6–10 hours ending by mid‑afternoon have been shown in small clinical trials to improve 24‑hour glucose profiles, insulin sensitivity, blood pressure dipping patterns, and expression of clock and metabolic genes (e.g. SIRT1, core clock components), even in the absence of weight loss. Reviews and meta‑analyses of time‑restricted eating suggest that aligning the eating window earlier in the day yields more consistent benefits for glycaemia and blood pressure than late‑window TRE, reinforcing the concept that “when” calories are consumed is biologically meaningful, beyond total energy alone [12,13,14,15,16].

These circadian effects appear to translate into clinically relevant outcomes, including mortality. In large population studies, individuals who concentrate their energy intake earlier, avoid very late dinners and maintain longer night‑time fasting intervals demonstrate lower risks not only of CVD but also of all‑cause mortality, whereas patterns characterised by late first and last meals show the opposite trend. The adverse impact of late eating may be especially pronounced in women, in night‑shift workers and in those with existing metabolic dysfunction, where circadian misalignment amplifies dysglycaemia, hypertension and systemic inflammation. Subjective outcomes mirror these physiological data: participants in early TRE and structured early‑eating interventions commonly report improved daytime energy, reduced evening hunger and better sleep quality, likely reflecting more stable glucose and cortisol rhythms across the 24‑hour cycle. Collectively, current evidence supports a pragmatic clinical message: prioritising earlier, regular meals, particularly an earlier first meal within an appropriately timed eating window may be a low cost, behaviourally tractable strategy to reinforce circadian health, enhance daytime function and reduce long-term cardiometabolic and mortality risk [1,8,9,13,14,15,16,18,19].

When Skipping Breakfast Might Make Sense

Although habitual breakfast skipping is associated with higher cardiometabolic risk in observational cohorts, emerging evidence indicates that in specific, structured contexts a later first meal can be metabolically neutral or even beneficial. Time-restricted eating (TRE) trials, in which participants compress caloric intake into 6-10 hour windows, demonstrate improvements in body weight, insulin sensitivity, blood pressure and lipid profiles, particularly when the eating window is anchored earlier in the day, even though this often entails omitting a conventional early-morning breakfast. Isocaloric TRE interventions suggest that benefits arise not only from spontaneous calorie restriction but also from improved circadian alignment and extended nocturnal fasting, which enhance metabolic flexibility and nocturnal autophagy. Under these conditions, skipping breakfast per se may no longer signal an unhealthy lifestyle, but rather form part of deliberate well-structured feeding pattern [1,8,13,14,15,20].

Low-carbohydrate and ketogenic dietary patterns provide another context in which a delayed first meal may be tolerated without the glycemic volatility typically observed in people who skip breakfast yet consume high-glycemic diets. In individuals adapted to nutritional ketosis, fasting periods extending into late morning are often accompanied by stable glucose, elevated ketone bodies and preserved or improved insulin sensitivity, provided that total energy and protein intake remain adequate. Small studies combining low‑carbohydrate or ketogenic diets with TRE have reported additive benefits on body composition, glycaemic control and blood pressure, suggesting that reducing postprandial glycaemic load can mitigate some of the adverse effects historically linked with breakfast omission. However, these regimens require careful formulation to avoid nutrient deficiencies and should be individualised, particularly in people with diabetes on glucose‑lowering medications [15,20,21,22].

Critically, the metabolic impact of “skipping breakfast” depends not only on whether the first meal is delayed, but also on the timing and composition of subsequent meals and the overall eating window. Studies of meal timing consistently show that late‑night energy intake and short nocturnal fasting are associated with higher cardiovascular and all‑cause mortality, independent of total calories. Conversely, patterns that combine a later first meal with an early evening cut‑off—for example, an eating window from late morning to mid‑afternoon can preserve or enhance cardiometabolic markers relative to ad libitum, longer eating windows extending into the late evening. In this framework, the health signal comes less from the presence of an early breakfast and more from maintaining a sufficiently long overnight fast, aligning caloric intake with the biological daytime, and avoiding large late meals when glucose tolerance is impaired [8,14,15,23].

Even when a later first meal is physiologically acceptable or strategically chosen, the qualitative nature of that meal remains central to cardiometabolic risk. Trials examining breakfast composition show that high‑sugar, refined‑starch first meals exaggerate postprandial glucose excursions and promote greater energy intake later in the day, whereas high‑protein, high‑fibre, low‑glycaemic meals blunt glucose spikes, improve satiety and reduce cravings, effects that are likely to generalise to the first meal consumed at any time. Observational data on TRE and early‑eating cohorts also suggest that higher diet quality, characterised by minimally processed foods, adequate protein, unsaturated fats and abundant vegetables is a major modifier of risk, sometimes attenuating the associations between breakfast timing and incident CVD. Accordingly, in clinical practice, advising selected patients to delay their first meal can be reasonable when it is embedded within a well‑planned, circadian‑aligned regimen (e.g., early‑anchored TRE, low‑glycaemic or ketogenic patterns with early dinner), coupled with the non‑negotiable principle that the first meal, whenever it occurs, should be metabolically supportive rather than high-sugar, ultra processed default [8,24].

Why The First Meal Quality Matters More Than The Label “Breakfast”

After the overnight fast, the first meal of the day interacts with a physiology that is temporarily primed for efficient glucose uptake but also vulnerable to exaggerated swings in glycemia and insulin if the initial substrate load is predominantly refined carbohydrate. Postprandial glycemic response depends on carbohydrate quality, gastric emptying, incretin signaling and tissue insulin sensitivity, all which display circadian variation and are particularly influential at the first meal after a prolonged fast. When that meal is a high-sugar, low-fiber “traditional” breakfast, such as sweetened cereal, white bread, pastries or juice, it is digested and absorbed rapidly, driving steep rises in blood glucose and compensatory hyperinsulinaemia. In susceptible individuals, this pattern can overshoot, leading to a rapid decline.  In susceptible individuals, this pattern can overshoot, leading to a rapid decline in glucose 2–4 hours later (reactive hypoglycaemia), manifested as fatigue, shakiness, irritability and strong cravings for more sugar or refined starch, thereby setting up a cycle of repeated spikes and dips across the day that promotes higher overall energy intake and metabolic stress [25,26,27,28,29].

Experimental studies directly comparing breakfast compositions support the notion that the quality of the first meal, rather than its label as “breakfast”, is critical for downstream metabolic and behavioural outcomes. Randomised trials have shown that protein‑rich, egg‑based breakfasts containing 20–30 g of protein, with or without added fibre, elicit lower postprandial glucose and insulin excursions and produce greater satiety than low‑protein, cereal‑based breakfasts matched for energy. In one crossover study, a high‑protein convenience breakfast reduced postprandial glycaemic incremental area under the curve and decreased ad libitum energy intake at the subsequent meal compared with both a low‑protein breakfast and morning fasting, indicating that a protein‑dense first meal can stabilise glycaemia and attenuate compensatory overeating later in the day. These findings align with mechanistic data demonstrating that protein and fat slow gastric emptying, blunt peak glucose, and enhance secretion of satiety hormones such as glucagon‑like peptide‑1 (GLP‑1) and peptide YY, whereas high‑glycaemic, low‑fibre carbohydrate does the opposite [25,30,31,32].

Continuous glucose monitoring–oriented approaches, such as those popularised by the “Glucose Goddess” framework, extend this concept by emphasising that a savoury, protein‑rich, fibre‑containing first meal keeps glucose excursions flatter not only immediately after eating but also for subsequent meals, regardless of whether that first meal is eaten at 7 a.m. or midday. Practical examples include omelettes with vegetables and cheese, Greek yogurt with nuts and seeds, or leftover fish with salad, all of which combine protein, fat and fibre to slow carbohydrate absorption and avoid the early‑day spike‑and‑crash pattern linked with cravings and fatigue. In contrast, initiating the day with a large glucose surge or deferring any food until late morning and then consuming a high-sugar, ultra processed meal primes the system for volatile glycaemic patterns and higher reward‑driven eating through the rest of the day. Accordingly, from a cardiometabolic and longevity perspective, the first meal’s macronutrient composition and glycaemic characteristics are more consequential than whether it is called “breakfast”: a savoury, protein‑rich, fibre‑rich meal, consumed within an appropriately timed eating window, is far more likely to support stable glucose dynamics, sustained energy and long‑term metabolic health than a sugary traditional breakfast or than prolonged fasting followed by a large, late, high‑glycaemic load [24,27,29,33].

The Glucose Goddess Perspective: Start with a Savory, Protein-Rich Breakfast

Within the Glucose Goddess framework, breakfast is conceptualised as the most influential “glucose event” of the day, and the central recommendation is to replace sweet, refined‑carbohydrate morning meals with a savoury, protein‑anchored first meal to flatten early‑day glucose excursions and downstream cravings. Inchauspé argues, drawing on CGM data and glycaemic physiology that consuming sugar and refined starches in the morning produces disproportionately large spikes and subsequent energy crashes, making sweet breakfasts functionally closer to desserts than to metabolically supportive meals. Her core principle is therefore “savory over sweet”: the first meal, whether eaten at 7 a.m. or later as part of time‑restricted eating, should avoid added sugars and high‑glycaemic grains, permitting only small amounts of whole fruit for taste once protein, fats and fibre are in place [24,34,35].

Operationally, the Glucose Goddess breakfast is built around high‑quality protein, adequate healthy fats and, ideally, non‑starchy vegetables, with any starches or fruit added only in small portions and eaten last. Inchauspé’s guidance is to “centre the plate” on protein sources such as eggs, Greek yogurt, tofu, lentils, or leftover meat or fish, then layer in fats like avocado, olive oil, nuts, seeds or cheese, and finally add vegetables such as spinach, mushrooms or tomatoes to increase fibre volume without substantially raising glycaemic load. This composition is intended to stabilise glucose through slower gastric emptying and enhanced satiety, consistent with the protein‑leverage concept and with controlled trials showing that protein‑rich breakfasts curb glucose surges and reduce later energy intake [30,36,37].

A complementary pillar of the method is the explicit avoidance of “naked carbs” as the first input of the day that is, carbohydrates consumed without accompanying protein, fat or fibre. Inchauspé highlights common examples of naked carbs at breakfast—fruit juice, white toast with jam, sugary cereals, pastries and encourages “dressing” these foods with protein, fat and fibre if they are consumed at all, or shifting them to the end of a balanced meal to blunt the glycaemic impact. This strategy aligns with her broader hacks of prioritising fibre and non‑starchy vegetables first, then protein and fats, and only then starches and sugars, using simple sequencing and composition changes rather than strict calorie counting to improve glycaemic profiles and subjective energy. In summary, the Glucose Goddess perspective reframes breakfast quality as a key determinant of daily glucose stability: a savoury, protein‑rich, fibre‑containing, minimally processed first meal is promoted as a low‑complexity, high‑yield intervention to reduce glucose variability, cravings and, by extension, long‑term metabolic risk [34,35,38].

The Nick Norwitz Perspective: Low-Glycemic, Protein Dense, Metabolically Smart

In Nick Norwitz’s work and public communication, diet is framed primarily as a tool to restore metabolic flexibility, the capacity to efficiently switch between glucose and fatty acids/ketones as fuel rather than as a fixed macronutrient prescription. He frequently uses low‑glycaemic, higher‑protein, higher‑fat patterns, often in the form of ketogenic or “Mediterranean‑keto” diets, as metabolic medicine, emphasising that chronically high glycaemic loads and frequent glucose excursions impair mitochondrial function, promote hepatic steatosis and increase cardiometabolic risk. Within this perspective, the first meal of the day, and meals more broadly, are designed to minimise rapid glycaemic swings while providing sufficient amino acids and micronutrients to maintain lean mass and support satiety [39].

A consistent theme in Norwitz’s dietary examples is reliance on protein‑dense whole foods such as eggs, sardines, other oily fish, fermented dairy (e.g. kefir, yogurt), meat and organ meats, complemented by low‑glycaemic vegetables and healthy fats (olive oil, nuts, ghee). Self‑experiments such as periods consuming very high numbers of eggs or sardines are used to illustrate that, in some individuals, diets rich in cholesterol-containing, nutrient-dense animal foods can improve lipid profiles and perceived energy when embedded in a carbohydrate‑restricted framework that lowers insulin demand and enhances fat oxidation. These food choices are positioned as “metabolically smart” because they deliver high‑quality protein, long‑chain omega‑3s, and cofactors like creatine and coenzyme Q10 while exerting minimal postprandial glycaemic impact [39,40].

Norwitz also emphasises the importance of pairing carbohydrates with protein and fat to blunt glucose spikes, an approach that aligns with broader clinical guidance showing that mixed meals with fibre, protein and fat slow carbohydrate absorption and reduce peak glycaemia. Rather than advocating universal carbohydrate elimination, he highlights the idea of “earning” or “buffering” carbohydrates, favouring lower‑glycaemic sources (e.g. whole fruit, legumes, certain whole grains) and consuming them alongside substantial protein and fat, especially in metabolically vulnerable individuals. This strategy is supported by experimental data showing that pre‑ or co‑ingestion of protein, fat or fibre meaningfully reduces glycaemic excursions to standardized carbohydrate loads in insulin‑sensitive people, and may still confer some benefit in those with insulin resistance [41,42,43].

Central to this philosophy is CGM‑guided personalisation. Norwitz has been involved in educational and research initiatives using continuous glucose monitoring to train clinicians and students, and he frequently highlights inter‑individual variability in glycaemic responses as a key reason to move beyond one‑size‑fits‑all dietary advice. He points to CGM data showing that two individuals can have opposite glucose responses to the same foods, arguing that this variability and the fact that glucose traces do not capture insulin or hepatic lipid handling necessitates an iterative, N=1 approach to dietary optimisation. In practice, this means using CGM and clinical markers to titrate carbohydrate load, food sequencing and meal composition, while keeping core principles, low‑glycaemic carbohydrate exposure, protein‑dense whole foods, and strategic pairing of carbohydrates with fat and protein to support metabolic flexibility and long-term cardiometabolic health [44,45,46].

Principles of a Glucose Friendly Breakfast

Designing a glucose‑friendly first meal can be greatly simplified by using modular, low‑glycaemic breakfast templates that embody shared principles from both mechanistic studies and CGM‑informed frameworks such as Glucose Goddess and Norwitz’s metabolic‑medicine approach. A prototypical option is an egg‑ or tofu‑based scramble combined with non‑starchy vegetables (e.g. spinach, tomatoes, mushrooms, peppers) and topped with avocado or a drizzle of extra‑virgin olive oil: this template typically delivers 25–40 g of protein, substantial fibre and unsaturated fats, with minimal rapidly digestible carbohydrate, and aligns with trials showing that high‑protein, higher‑fat breakfasts improve postprandial glycaemia, satiety and subsequent energy intake compared with cereal‑based meals. For individuals preferring dairy, a bowl of Greek yogurt or skyr mixed with nuts and seeds plus a small portion of low‑glycaemic berries (e.g. blueberries, raspberries) provides a similar macronutrient profile; nuts and seeds increase fibre and fat content, further moderating glucose rise, while berries supply micronutrients and polyphenols with relatively modest glycaemic impact. In cultures where grains are central, savoury preparations of oats or quinoa cooked more al dente, then combined with eggs, leafy greens and olive oil, can shift a traditionally carbohydrate‑dense breakfast toward a mixed, lower‑glycaemic pattern, leveraging data that higher‑protein, lower‑GI breakfasts improve glycaemic variability and perceived hunger without necessitating complete carbohydrate exclusion [24,36,47,48,49,50,51,52,53].

These templates share a common architecture, protein anchor, non‑starchy vegetables or other fibre sources, and healthy fats with carbohydrates treated as optional, modest additions rather than the structural base of the meal. Within this structure, localisation is straightforward: eggs can be swapped for tofu, tempeh or lentils, vegetables can be chosen according to regional availability and preference, and fats can come from locally accessible sources such as nuts, seeds, coconut (used sparingly), or traditional oils, as long as the overarching principle of limiting rapidly absorbable starches and sugars is maintained. Importantly, evidence from interventional and epidemiological studies indicates that breakfast patterns dominated by refined carbohydrates and added sugars are consistently linked to larger glucose excursions, reactive hypoglycaemia, increased cravings and higher total energy intake across the day. Items such as fruit juices, sweetened coffee drinks, pastries, sugary breakfast cereals, and white bread with jam or chocolate spread are rapidly digested, high‑glycaemic “naked carbs”, and when consumed in isolation without accompanying protein or fibre produce steep glucose and insulin peaks followed by pronounced dips, which drive hunger and reward‑seeking eating behaviour later in the morning [24,27,29,36,48,54,55,56,57].

From a clinical and public‑health standpoint, the recommendation is therefore twofold: first, to encourage patients to adopt reproducible, low‑glycaemic breakfast templates built around protein‑dense whole foods, non‑starchy vegetables and healthy fats, adapted to local culinary traditions; and second, to minimise or “dress” refined sugars and ultra‑processed starches, especially as the first input of the day. Replacing juice with whole fruit eaten at the end of a balanced meal, swapping sugary cereals for yogurt‑based bowls with nuts and seeds, or transforming white‑bread‑and‑spread breakfasts into egg‑ and vegetable‑centred plates are concrete, behaviourally tractable shifts that align with both controlled studies of breakfast composition and CGM‑derived observations on daily glycaemic stability. Such patterns not only flatten immediate postprandial glucose curves but also appear to reduce late‑morning fatigue and cravings, potentially enhancing adherence to nutrient‑dense dietary patterns over time and supporting long‑term cardiometabolic health and healthy ageing trajectories [24,47,48,50,53,57].

Personalization: Chronotype, Activity, and Metabolic Status

Personalisation is central to any recommendation on whether to eat or skip breakfast and how to compose the first meal, because metabolic responses are shaped by chronotype, habitual activity patterns, existing insulin sensitivity and individual glycaemic variability. Chrononutrition studies show that delaying the first eating event and compressing energy intake into later hours is associated with higher BMI and adverse cardiometabolic markers in many individuals, with particularly strong effects in early chronotypes, for whom late eating produces greater circadian misalignment. Conversely, aligning energy intake with one’s biological “day”, earlier meals for r morning types, and avoiding very late dinners for all chronotypes appears to support lower blood pressure, BMI and inflammatory markers, even when total calories are unchanged. For early types, therefore, an earlier, nutrient‑dense first meal is often advantageous, whereas forcing an early breakfast at odds with a pronounced evening chronotype may worsen circadian misalignment if it extends rather than compresses the overall eating window [58,59,60,61].

Physical activity, particularly morning exercise, further modifies the decision to eat or skip breakfast. Acute trials in healthy men indicate that skipping breakfast before moderate‑intensity exercise increases whole‑body fat oxidation during the session and can create a more negative daily energy balance without full compensatory overeating later in the day, suggesting a potential role for strategic morning fasting in weight‑management contexts. However, breakfast omission also amplifies post‑prandial glycaemia at subsequent meals, the “second-meal effect”, especially when t hose meals are carbohydrate‑rich, an effect that may be undesirable in individuals with impaired glucose tolerance. Athletes or highly active individuals may therefore tolerate, or even benefit from, occasional fasted morning training, provided that total energy and protein targets are met later in the day; by contrast, patients with diabetes or at high risk of hypoglycaemia generally require more regular morning intake to avoid large glycaemic swings and should individualise pre‑exercise fuelling with CGM guidance where possible [59,62,63,64].

Insulin resistance, diabetes risk and weight‑loss goals all argue for a more conservative stance on skipping breakfast and for careful composition of the first meal. Observational data link habitual breakfast skipping to higher prevalence of metabolic syndrome and prediabetes, and mechanistic studies show that omitting breakfast acutely worsens post‑lunch and post‑dinner hyperglycaemia and impairs insulin responses in people with and without type 2 diabetes. In individuals with established insulin resistance or elevated diabetes risk, early time‑restricted eating windows (e.g. 08:00–16:00) that include a substantial, protein‑rich first meal have improved insulin sensitivity, fasting glucose and blood pressure, whereas late‑window TRE appears metabolically less favourable. For weight management, both earlier eating windows and higher‑protein breakfasts (around 25–40 g) are associated with better appetite control, reduced evening hunger and greater weight loss, suggesting that, for many patients with obesity or prediabetes, maintaining a structured, savoury, low‑glycaemic first meal is preferable to skipping breakfast and concentrating calories late in the day [47,59,61,63,65,66,67].

Continuous glucose monitoring adds another layer of personalisation by revealing substantial inter‑individual variability in glycaemic responses to meal timing and composition. TRE and chrononutrition trials that incorporate CGM demonstrate that advancing the first meal to earlier in the waking period generally lowers 24‑hour mean glucose and glycaemic variability, but also show that some individuals maintain acceptable glycaemic profiles with later first meals when overall carbohydrate load is reduced and the eating window ends early. CGM data can identify patients who experience pronounced late‑morning hypoglycaemic dips or large post‑lunch spikes when breakfast is omitted, signals that a modest, protein- and fibre-rich first meal may be protective as well as those who tolerate a delayed first meal without adverse excursions when practising low‑glycaemic, energy‑appropriate TRE. In practice, clinicians should therefore move away from universal prescriptions and instead integrate chronotype, daily schedule, training patterns, metabolic status and CGM feedback to determine whether to encourage an earlier, structured breakfast or a carefully designed later first meal, ensuring in both cases that macro‑composition supports glycaemic stability, adequate protein intake and alignment with the individual’s circadian and behavioural context [58,59,68].

Practical Strategies for Busy Mornings: From First Meal to Full-day Glycemic Stability

For many people, the main barrier to a metabolically supportive first meal is time rather than knowledge, which makes “no‑excuse” options crucial for real‑world implementation. Simple, protein‑forward combinations such as boiled eggs with a handful of nuts, a pot of plain Greek yogurt with a spoonful of nut butter, or tinned fish (e.g. sardines, mackerel) paired with pre‑washed salad or leftover vegetables can deliver 20–30 g of protein, healthy fats and minimal glycaemic load in minutes, with no cooking required. Pre‑prepared chia puddings, made by soaking chia seeds in milk or yogurt and adding a protein source such as Greek yogurt or protein powder, offer another option with high fibre and fat content that slows glucose absorption and has been reported as convenient and blood sugar friendly in diabetes communities. These patterns mirror the principles highlighted in intervention trials: protein‑rich breakfasts, even when delivered as convenience foods, reduce postprandial glucose and insulin excursions, improve satiety and can lower subsequent energy intake compared with low‑protein or skipped breakfasts, making them well suited to busy mornings [32,69,70].

The importance of such practical strategies extends beyond the immediate postprandial window, as breakfast composition appears to shape eating behaviour and glycaemic stability across the entire day. Randomised and crossover studies show that higher‑protein breakfasts (approximately 25–35 g) reduce hunger, lower desire for high‑fat or high‑sugar snacks, and decrease evening snacking, whereas skipping breakfast or consuming a low‑protein, high‑carbohydrate morning meal is associated with greater total daily energy intake and more frequent snacking. Mechanistically, these effects are mediated by more favourable responses of appetite‑regulating hormones such as peptide YY and GLP‑1, as well as flatter glucose and insulin curves, which reduce the likelihood of late‑morning “crashes” that drive compensatory eating. Observational work in people with or at risk for diabetes similarly links high‑protein, high‑fibre, low‑glycaemic breakfasts such as yogurt with nuts and berries, eggs with vegetables, or chia-based bowls to better day long glycemic profiles and easier adherence to overall dietary recommendations compared with breakfasts dominated by refined grains and sugars. Consequently, embedding fast, reproducible “no‑excuse” options into daily routines can act as a keystone habit: by stabilising the first major glycaemic event of the day, these breakfasts help reduce snacking, prevent energy crashes and support sustained adherence to a nutrient‑dense, cardiometabolically protective dietary pattern [32,49,70].

Conclusion: Rethinking Breakfast for Longevity

Taken together, the current evidence base supports a more nuanced view of breakfast in the context of metabolic health and longevity. Breakfast is neither a universal requirement nor an inherently protective behavior; rather, it is a proxy for a broader pattern of meal timing, diet quality and lifestyle. In observational cohorts, “never eating breakfast” often co-travels with late-night eating, ultra-processed diets, smoking, short sleep and low physical activity, all of which inflate cardiometabolic and mortality risk, making it inappropriate to conclude that the mere act of eating early in the day is uniquely casual. At the same time, experimental work on circadian biology and early time-restricted eating indicates that aligning the bulk of energy intake earlier, extending the overnight fast, and avoiding large late dinners can improve glycemic profiles, blood pressure, lipid metabolism and subjective daytime energy, all of which plausibility contributes to ageing trajectories.

Within this framework, the clinically relevant question shifts from ‘should everyone eat breakfast?” to “what does the first meal of the day look like, and where does it sit in the 24-hour rhythm?” For many individuals, particularly those with insulin resistance, obesity, or high-cardiometabolic risk, an earlier, savory, protein-rich, low-glycemic first meal appears to support more stable glucose excursions, better satiety and reduced cravings across the day compared with both a sugary, refined-carbohydrate “traditional” breakfast and prolonged morning fasting followed by a large, late, carbohydrate-heavy meal. A first meal centered on high-quality protein, fiber, unsaturated fats and minimally processed carbohydrates may also act as a metabolic zeitgeber, reinforcing synchrony between central and peripheral characterized by skipping any substantial early-day intake, relying on ultra processed snacks, and concentrating calories into late evening meals consistently align with higher rates of obesity, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular events.

From a practical standpoint, a longevity-oriented approach does not mandate blanket prescription of breakfast, but rather encourages personalization within circadian-aligned boundaries. For patients who tolerate and prefer a shortened eating window, a later first meal can be incorporated safely if total energy, nutrient density and an early evening cut-off are preserved. For others, especially those vulnerable to dysglycemia or overeating, a deliberate early-day meal that is savory, protein-dense and low glycemic will usually be more advantageous than skipping breakfast or defaulting to a sweet, refined-grain option. Ultimately, reframing breakfast as a strategically composed, rhythm =0sensitive “first metabolic signal” of the day rather than a culturally fixed ritual offers a flexible, evidence-informed lever to support glucose stability, cardiometabolic health and, potentially, healthy longevity.

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